Understanding Nature is a new kind of ecology textbook: a straightforward resource that teaches natural history and ecological content, and a way to instruct students that will nurture both Earth and self. While meeting the textbook guidelines set forth by the Ecological Society of America, Understanding Nature has a unique ecotherapy theme, using a historical framework to teach ecological theory to undergraduates.
This textbook presents all the core information without being unnecessarily wordy or lengthy, using simple, relatable language and discussing ecology in ways that any student can apply in real life. Uniquely, it is also a manual on how to improve one’s relationship with the Earth. This is accomplished through coverage of natural history, ecology, and applications, together with suggested field activities that start each chapter and thinking questions that end each chapter. The book includes traditional ecological knowledge as well as the history of scientific ecological knowledge.
Understanding Nature teaches theory and applications that will heal the Earth. It also teaches long-term sustainability practices for one’s psyche. Professor Louise Weber is both an ecologist and a certified ecopsychologist, challenging ecology instructors to rethink what and how they teach about nature. Her book bridges the gap between students taking ecology to become ecologists and those taking ecology as a requirement, who will use the knowledge to become informed citizens.
Author(s): Louise M. Weber
Publisher: CRC Press
Year: 2023
Language: English
Pages: 376
City: Boca Raton
Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments
About the Author
1 Introduction
A 21st-Century Response
The Goals of This Book
Ecology’s Magic Glasses
What Is Ecology?
What Became of the Early Nature Study Movement?
Today’s Nature Study
The Strategy for This Book
Closing Arguments
References
2 We Stand on their Shoulders
Introduction
Natural History Meets Traditional Ecological Knowledge
The Wolf, the Raven
The History of SEK
The Renaissance and Natural History
1700s – Age of Exploration and Natural History
Linnaeus
1800s – Age of Evolution
Gilbert White
Charles Darwin and the Founding of Ecology
The Wolf and the Raven
To What Ends? Next Steps
References
3 Biomes, Life Forms, and Ecoregions
Introduction
Are There Animal Life Forms?
How Did the Concept of Biomes Arise?
What Determines Where Biomes Are Located?
What Are the Limitations of Biomes?
What Are Ecoregions and Are They Better Than Biomes?
World Wildlife Fund Designations
The 14 Land Biomes Recognized by WWF
Next Steps
References
4 Biomes: Tundra and Taiga
What Is Meant by “Tundra?”
Does Antarctica Have Tundra?
What Is the Vegetative Life Form for Tundra?
What Are Other Characteristics of Arctic Tundra?
Animal Life in Arctic Tundra
Conservation Problems of Arctic Tundra
What Are Characteristics of Alpine Tundra?
What Is Meant by Taiga?
What Is the Plant Life Form for Taiga?
What Are Other Characteristics of Taiga?
Conservation Problems of Taiga
References
5 Biomes: Grassland
What Is Meant by “Grassland?”
What Are Characteristics of Temperate Grassland?
What Is the Plant Life Form for Temperate Grassland?
The Desert-Forest Diagonal in Temperate Grassland
Animal Life in Temperate Grassland
Grassland Conservation Problems
The Great Plains of North America
North American Grassland Not in the Great Plains
Open Canopy Areas and Grassland in Eastern N. America
Tropical Grassland, Savanna, and Shrubland
Conservation of Tropical Grassland, Savanna, and Shrubland
South American Grassland
Grassland and Savanna of Africa
Australian Grassland
References
6 Biomes: Shrubland, Thickets, and Desert
What Is Meant by Shrubland (Scrubland)?
What Is the Plant Life Form for Shrubland?
What Are Other Characteristics of Shrubland?
What Animals Occur in Shrubland?
Locations of Shrubland and Notable Types
Mediterranean
Thorn Scrub
Great Basin of the U.S
Southwestern Australian
Fynbos – Cape Region of South Africa
Coastal Shrubland of Europe
Chaparral and Chaco of the Americas
Grand Choco of South America
Heathland of Europe
Thickets in U.S. Forests
Conservation of Shrubland
What Is “Desert?”
What Are Other Characteristics of Desert?
Desert Formation
Plant Life Form in Desert
Animal Life in Desert
The Major Ecological Processes of Desert
Deserts of N. America
Conservation Problems of Desert
References
7 Biomes: Savanna and Forest
Introduction
What Is Savanna?
What Are Characteristics of Savanna?
Animals of Savanna?
Conservation of Savanna
Does N. America Have Savanna? Yes
What Is Meant by Forest?
What Is the Plant Life Forms of Forest?
Characteristics of Temperate Deciduous Broadleaf Forest
Stratification in Temperate Deciduous Broadleaf Forests
Light Varies Seasonally within the Temperate Deciduous Broadleaf Forest
Types of Deciduous Broadleaf Forest in Eastern N. America
Temperate Evergreen Forests
Other Temperate Coniferous Forests in N. America
Tropical Forests
Soils of Tropical Forest
Humans in the Tropical Forest and Conservation
Tropical Rainforest Life Forms
Animals of Tropical Rainforest
Tropical Seasonal Forest
References
8 Why are Biomes where they Are?
Introduction
What Determines Life Form at the Global Level?
What Determines Climate?
Determinants of Life Form at the Global Level – Seasons
Determinants of Life Form at the Global Level – Air Masses
Determinants of Life Form at the Global Level – Prevailing Winds
Determinants of Life Form at the Global Level – Trade Winds, ITCZ, Doldrums, Monsoons
Determinants of Life Form at the Global Level – El Nino
Determinants of Life Form at the Continental Level – Prevailing Westerlies in Temperate Latitudes
Determinants of Life Form at the Regional Level – Altitude
Why Do Vegetation Patterns Change with Altitude?
Determinants of Life Form at the Regional Level – Aspect
Determinants of Life Form at the Regional Level – Rain Shadow
Determinants of Life Form at the Regional Level – Valley Influences
Determinants of Life Form at the Regional Level – Maritime Influences
Determinants of Life Form at the Local Level
References
9 Why are Individual Species where they Are?
What Characterizes Species Diversity Patterns throughout the Earth?
The Species Distribution Constraint Hierarchy
Working through the Constraint Hierarchy at the Global Level
Tolerance Limits
Species Gradients
The Constraint Hierarchy at the Regional Spatial Scale
Dispersal
Speciation
The Constraint Hierarchy at the Local Spatial Scale
Next Steps
References
10 Introduction to Evolution: The Modern Synthesis
Three Periods for Understanding Biological Evolution
What Were the Main Features of the Darwinian Synthesis?
What Were the Main Features of the Modern Synthesis?
Three Further Categories for Understanding the Modern Synthesis
What Is Molecular Evolution?
What Is Meant by Microevolution?
What Are the Basics of Microevolution and Population Genetics?
Why Do Changes in Allele Frequency Occur?
Natural Selection in More Detail
What Are Adaptations?
Natural Selection Does Not Create Adaptations
Specific Types of Evolution and Natural Selection
Kin Selection
Can Kin Selection Be Applied to Humans?
The Evolution of an Idea
References
11 Advances in Microevolution, Molecular Evolution, and Evo-Devo
The Revolution in Evolution
What Are the Features of Postmodern Thinking?
Postmodern Discoveries in Developmental Biology
Phenotypic Plasticity within Evo-Devo
How Does Phenotypic Plasticity Affect Evolution?
The Emerging Paradigm
References
12 An Autobiography of the Earth
Getting a Handle on a 4.5-Billion-Year-Old Autobiography
The Most Important Events within Macroevolution
The 14-Billion-Year Time Scale
What Is a Fossil?
The History of Life and Systematics
Geologic History Since 600 mya (Lomolino et al. 2016)
Tectonic Plates
Geologic History Since 600 mya
Evolution during the Paleozoic – Cambrian
Evolution during the Paleozoic – Ordovician
Evolution during the Paleozoic – Silurian
Evolution during the Paleozoic – Carboniferous
The Mesozoic
Evolution in the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous
The Cenozoic
Evolution in the Cenozoic – Paleogene
Evolution in the Cenozoic – Neogene
Evolution in the Pleistocene on a 2-Million-Year Scale
History of Humans
The Overkill Hypothesis
Summary of Macroevolution Events
Evidence for Evolution
References
13 Introduction to Statistics
Introduction
The Null Hypothesis
The Problems with Null Hypotheses
P value
Why Do We Use P=0.05 as the Cutoff Point?
An Obsession with Rejection–Statistical versus Scientific Significance
Means Comparisons
Parametric versus Non-parametric Tests
Which Is the Best Choice, Parametric or Non-Parametric?
What If the First Two Assumptions of the t-Test Are Not Met?
What If the Researcher Is Comparing More Than Two Means?
Post Hoc Tests to Compare Pairs of Means
How Do I Signify Pairwise Significant Differences on My Graph?
Tabular Comparisons: Comparing Frequencies through Chi-Square Test
Example Hypotheses Tested in Chi-Square
Correlation and Regression
How Are Regression and Correlation Different?
Some Other Differences between Regression and Correlation
The Strength of the Correlation Can Be Measured
Words of Caution about Correlation
References
14 Population Ecology Basics
Why Focus on One Species at a Time?
Where Should a Student Begin?
What Is a Population?
What Is Population Ecology?
When Did Population Ecology Arise?
How Is a Population “delineated?”
How Many Individuals Are in a Population?
How Are the Number of Individuals Counted?
What Is Relative Abundance?
What Is an Index?
What Is Noise?
More Difficulties: What about Counting Modular Units?
What about Counting Clones?
How Are Individuals Distributed?
Conclusions about the Population Concept
Vital Rates
Graphical Modeling for Animals
Incorporating Vital Rates to Make a Life Table
What Is a Life Table?
How to Read Life Tables
Life Tables in Ecology
What Is a Fecundity Table?
What Are the Different Types of Life Tables?
What Can We Conclude Overall about Life Tables?
Simple Equations for Modeling Population Growth
What Is Exponential and Arithmetic Growth?
The Equations for Exponential Growth
How Do We Assign Values to r or R?
References
15 Population Ecology’s Profound Questions
What Is This Chapter About?
The Challenge for Students
The Remedy Is Clarity and Context
Spoiler Alert – Answers to This Chapter’s Big Questions
Logistic Growth Models
The Equilibrium Theory Formalized in the 1920s
The Equilibrium Debate Begins in the 1930s
What “Regulates” Population Growth?
Non-equilibrium School of Thought
Support and Evidence for Density Independence
Which Side Was Right in the Equilibrium Debate?
Do We See the Logistic Pattern for Newly Colonized Species?
Why Not Logistic Growth – Abiotic Factors
Why Not Logistic Growth– Biotic Factors, the Allee Effect
Why Not Logistic Growth – Biotic Factors, Stunting
If the Sigmoid Curve Is Not Typical, What Is the Common Pattern?
Examples of Boom, Bust, and Irruptions
What Explains Boom and Bust– Phytoplankton Example
What Explains Boom and Bust– Self-Thinning in Trees
What Else Explains Boom and Bust – Biotic Effects, Compensatory Mortality
Why Do the Phytoplankton Populations Not Go Locally Extinct – The “Law” of Diminishing Returns in Hunting
Revisiting the Phytoplankton Case, Why the Bimodal Curve?
In the Equilibrium Debate, Who Was Right?
Life Histories (K Selected, r Selected Species) and a Truce
The Iteroparity/Semelparity Phenomenon and Its Significance
Problems with the rand K Hypothesis
Advances in Modeling: Time Lags, Stage Structure, Leslie Matrices
What Does Stage Structure Mean?
Matrix Projection Models
The Curious Phenomenon of Chaos
Further Theoretical Ideas – Metapopulations
What Are Stochastic Models?
Stochastic Modeling for Small Populations – Endangered Species Management
A Summary of Current Population Models – And a Wish List
Are There Any Good Models Not Based on the Logistic?
What Is the Current Understanding in the Equilibrium/Non-equilibrium Debate?
References
16 Community Ecology Basics
What Characterizes Community Ecology?
Questions Asked by Community Ecologists
What Are the Ways Organisms Can Interact?
What Is the Difference between Symbiosis, Mutualism, and Facilitation?
Summary of Mutualism
Commensalism and Amensalism
Predation
Herbivory
Parasitism
Competition
Competition: The Central Concept in Ecology?
References
17 Theory in Community Ecology/Competition
Early Assumptions about Ecological Communities
Competition in a Garden
Predicting Winners through Lotka-Volterra Equations
How Do Environmental Conditions Affect Competition?
Does the Lotka-Volterra Model Apply Well to Natural Situations?
The Golden Age of Ecological Theory – Hutchinson, MacArthur, and Wilson
What Is a Niche?
The Hutchinsonian Definition of Niche
What Happens If Two Species Try to Occupy the Same Niche?
The Equilibrium Debate
The Theory of Island Biogeography
Simberloff-Diamond Debate: How to Do Science
Simberloff-Diamond Debate: SLOSS
What Is the Neutral Model in Ecology?
Ideas That Emerged Since 1975 in Understanding Community Structure
Endnotes, Updates, and Conclusions
References
18 Predation
Truth, Myth, and Controversy
The Answers Start with Definitions
More Definitions: Not All Predators Kill the Same Way
What Is Hyperpredation?
Ecological Theory Regarding Predation
Do Predator-Prey Dynamics Cycle?
How Can Predators and Prey Coexist?
The Insights of Holling
Plant Defenses against Herbivores
Modeling Predator-Prey Interactions
Keystone Predators
Keystone Species That Are Not Predators
Jane Lubchenco
Menge and Sutherland
References
19 Succession
Succession Overview
Types of Succession
Theoretical Questions about Succession
Theory of Succession
The Individualistic View of Succession
Resolution of the Debates
Models That Organize Ideas about What Controls Community Changes during Succession
Disturbance
Analysis of the Succession and Community Ecology Paradigm – Facilitation
Further Advances in Understanding and Modeling Mutualism
References
20 Ecosystem Ecology Basics
What Characterizes Ecosystem Ecology?
Characteristics of Ecosystem Ecology – Machine Theory
Characteristics of Ecosystem Ecology – Holism
Characteristics of Ecosystem Ecology – Emergent Properties
Characteristics of Ecosystem Ecology – Systems Approach
Characteristics of Ecosystem Ecology – Feedback Loops
Characteristics of Ecosystem Ecology – Food Chains and Trophic Levels
Characteristics of Ecosystem Ecology – Adaptive Management
The Aquatic Ecology Legacy
Legacy of Birge and Juday
Raymond Lindeman
The Odums
The Savannah River Project in South Carolina
Ecosystem Ecology after 1960 – Big Biology
The IBP
The Environmental Movement and Environmental Studies
References
21 Energy
The Ecosystem Machine
What Is Energy?
What Are Photons?
Wavelengths or Frequencies?
What Is Sound, MRI, CT, and Ultrasound?
Back to the Ecosystem Machine – Energy Can Change Form
Sun Energy and Its Effect on Earth’s Atmosphere
The Ocean Energy Budget
El Nino Phenomena
References
22 Matter
What Is Nutrient Recycling
Organizing Categories in Biogeochemistry – Compartments
Organizing Categories in Biogeochemistry – State and Carbon Condition
Nutrient Cycles
Hydrologic Cycle
Carbon Cycle
Carbon in Water and Its Effect on pH
Carbon Decomposition in Lakes
Carbon Cycle Dynamics in General
Nitrogen Cycle
Final Analysis
References
23 Ecosystem Regulation
Introductory Principles
Why Is the World Green?
Eutrophication in Lakes
David Schindler
More Lake Studies – Lake Michigan
Solutions for Lake Michigan and the Great Lakes
Whole Lake Experiments – Steve Carpenter
What Does This Tell Us about the Regulation of Lakes?
Trophic Cascades in Benthic Ecosystems?
Nutrient Cycles in Terrestrial Ecosystems – Hubbard Brook
What Regulates Ecosystems?
Alternative Stable States
Ecosystem Summary
References
24 Landscape Ecology
Introduction
Major Themes
Vocabulary in Landscape Ecology
Progression of Theory in Landscape Ecology
1960s
1970s
1980s
1990s
Recent and Future Models
Top Five Uses for Landscape Ecology
Synthesis
References
25 Wildlife Management and Habitat Ecology
Why Wildlife Management?
The Leopoldian Basics of Wildlife Management
Food Found in Edge
Food Types
Digestion – Birds
Digestion – Mammals
Are Salt Licks Useful? What about Other Supplements?
Water
Cover
Space
What Are Edge Effects?
Is Edge the Villain?
Is Clear-Cutting Detrimental to Songbirds?
References
26 Wildlife Management for Temperate Farms and Ranches
What Is the Goal of This Chapter?
Four Management Priorities
Applying Management Priorities to Farms and Ranches
Treat Water Like Gold
Provide a Mosaic
Protect Unique and Important Habitat Features
Minimize Invasive and Introduced Species
Government Programs
Conservation of Grassland at Airports
References
27 Wildlife Management in Temperate Forests
What Type of Forest Has Optimal Conservation Value?
Highest Priorities
Treat Water Like Gold
What Is the Ideal Width of a Riparian Zone?
Provide a Mosaic
Protect Unique and Important Habitat Features
Shrubby Thickets in Eastern N. America
Minimize Invasive Introduced Species
Minimize Human Interference
Ready to Write a Forest Management Plan?
References
28 Conservation Biology
What Is Conservation Biology?
Characteristics of Conservation Biology
Conserving Species Diversity
The Gap between the Number Named and the Number Existing
Extinction Rates
Population Decline
IUCN Red List
The Sixth Great Extinction Event
What Are the Causes of the Current Extinction Crisis?
Habitat Loss
Overexploitation – Hunting and Overharvesting
Global Climate Change
Introduction of Non-Native Species
Understanding Extinction – The Most Extinction-Prone Species?
What Are the Most Extinction-Prone Habitats?
Managing Land for Protection of Biodiversity
Irreplaceability Approach to Managing Land – Hotspots
Comprehensiveness Approach to Managing Land – Gap Analysis
Representative Approach to Managing Land – Biosphere Reserves
Connectivity Approach to Managing Land – Wildlands Network (Originally Known as Wildlands Project)
Beyond Managing Land – Other Solutions for Conserving Biodiversity
Conclusions
References
29 Restoration Ecology
Restoration Approaches
What Is Next After Identifying Spatial Scale and Place on the Spectrum?
Values of the Stakeholders
Setting Goals for the Restoration Effort
The Diagnosis and Treatment Plan?
Reference Ecosystems for the Project
The Restoration Execution
Hydrology (Apfelbaum and Haney 2010)
Pollutants
Biological Techniques
What Are the Indicators of Success?
Example: A Landscape Ecology Understanding of Restoration
References
30 Aquatic Ecology
Introduction
Without Biomes, How Are Waterways Classified?
Waterway Classifications – Salt Content
Classification of Freshwaters
Classification of Wetlands
Ecology of Streams and Rivers
Characteristics of Streams from Source to Mouth
What Are the Food Sources for Animals in Streams?
Habitat Classification within Lakes
Stratification within Lakes
Is the Epilimnion Well Oxygenated?
Is the Hypolimnion Well Oxygenated?
The World Experienced by Plankton – Reynolds Number
Nutrient Content Classification of Lakes
What Characterizes Saltwater Ecosystems?
Tides
Major Ecological Communities in Oceans
References
31 New Perspectives in Biogeography
The Relevance of Biogeography
Subsections of Biogeography
The Constraint Hierarchy in Chapter 9
The Niche Concept
Large Spatial Scales
Regional Spatial Scales
Local Special Scales – Interspecific Interactions
How Biogeography Can Fundamentally Change Our Ideas about Communities and Ecosystems
The Future of Biogeography
References
32 Wicked Problems
Introductory Principles
Essential Vocabulary
The Super Wicked
What Is Adaptation?
Resilience
References
33 Epilogue – The Evolution of an Idea
Historical Overview
Existing Organizational Ideas in Theoretical Concepts
Toward a New Understanding
A Simplified Organizational Scheme
Does Ecology Have Laws?
A Summary of Ecological Understanding – Narrative
Ideas Specific to Ecology – Global Scale
Ideas Specific to Ecology – Regional Scale
Ideas Specific to Ecology – Local Scale
The Present and Future
What Can We Do?
What Ecology Is and Is Not
References
Index
